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Annotation of 42BSD/usr.lib/learn/editor/L53.2b, revision 1.1

1.1     ! root        1: #print
        !             2: There is a big file "federal" in this directory.
        !             3: It contains the following mistyped words:
        !             4:   Typed as   Should be
        !             5: cotnend       contend
        !             6: aalarm        alarm
        !             7: exedient      expedient
        !             8: drabel        durable
        !             9: ugdes         judges
        !            10: trame         trample
        !            11: viws          views
        !            12: 
        !            13: Fix things up, rewrite the file, and then type "ready".
        !            14: #create Ref
        !            15: Among the numerous advantages promised by a well-constructed
        !            16: Union, none deserves to be more accurately
        !            17: developed than its tendency to break and control the violence
        !            18: of faction.
        !            19: The friend of popular governments never finds himself
        !            20: so much alarmed for their character and fate as when he
        !            21: contemplates their propensity to this dangerous vice.
        !            22: He will not fail, therefore, to set a due value on
        !            23: any plan which, without violating the principles to which
        !            24: he is attached, provides a proper cure for it.
        !            25: The instability, injustice, and confusion introduced into the public
        !            26: councils have, in truth, been the mortal diseases under
        !            27: which popular governments have everywhere perished, as
        !            28: they continue to be the favorite and fruitful topics from
        !            29: which the adversaries to liberty derive their most specious
        !            30: declamations.
        !            31: The valuable improvements made by the American constitutions
        !            32: on the popular models, both ancient
        !            33: and modern, cannot certainly be too much admired;
        !            34: but it would be an unwarrantable partiality to contend
        !            35: that they have as effectually obviated the danger on this
        !            36: side, as was wished and expected.
        !            37: Complaints are everywhere heard from our most considerate and virtuous
        !            38: citizens, equally the friends of public and private faith
        !            39: and of public and personal liberty, that out governments
        !            40: are too unstable, that the public good is disregarded in
        !            41: the conflicts of rival parties, and that measures are too
        !            42: often decided, not according to the rules of justice and
        !            43: the rights of the minor party, but by the superior force
        !            44: of an interested and overbearing majority.
        !            45: However anxiously we may wish that these complaints had no
        !            46: foundation, the evidence of known facts will not permit
        !            47: us to deny that they are in some degree true.
        !            48: It will be found, indeed, on a candid review of our situation, that
        !            49: some of the distresses under which we labor have been
        !            50: erroneously charged on the operation of our governments;
        !            51: but it will be found, at the same time, that other
        !            52: causes will not alone account for many of our heaviest
        !            53: misfortunes; and, particularly, for that prevailing and increasing
        !            54: distrust of public engagements and alarm for
        !            55: private rights which are echoed from one end of the
        !            56: continent to the other.
        !            57: These must be chiefly, if not wholly,
        !            58: effects of the unsteadiness and injustice with
        !            59: which a factious spirit has tainted out public administration.
        !            60:    By a faction I understand a number of citizens,
        !            61: whether amounting to a majority or minority of the whole,
        !            62: who are united and actuated by some common impulse
        !            63: of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other
        !            64: citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of
        !            65: the community.
        !            66:    There are two methods of curing the mischiefs of
        !            67: faction: The one,
        !            68: by removing its causes; the other, by controlling
        !            69: its effects.
        !            70:    There are again two methods of removing the causes of faction:
        !            71: The one, by destroying the liberty which is essential to its existence;
        !            72: The other, by giving to every
        !            73: citizen the same opinions, the same passions, and the
        !            74: same interests.
        !            75:    It could never be more truly said than of the first
        !            76: remedy that it was worse than the disease.
        !            77: Liberty is to
        !            78: faction what air is to fire, an ailment without which it
        !            79: instantly expires.
        !            80: But it could not be less folly to
        !            81: abolish liberty, which is essential to political life,
        !            82: because it nourishes faction than it would be to wish the
        !            83: annihilation of air, which is essential to animal life,
        !            84: because it imparts to dire its destructive agency.
        !            85:    The second expedient is as impracticable as the first
        !            86: would be unwise.
        !            87: As long as the reason of man continues
        !            88: fallible, and he is at liberty to exercise it, different 
        !            89: opinions will be formed.
        !            90: As long as the connection subsists
        !            91: between his reason and his self-love, his opinions and his
        !            92: passions will have a reciprocal influence on each other;
        !            93: and the former will be objects to which the latter will
        !            94: attach themselves.
        !            95: The diversity in the faculties of men,
        !            96: from which the rights of property originate, is not less an
        !            97: insuperable obstacle to the uniformity of interests.
        !            98: The protection of these faculties is the first object of
        !            99: government.
        !           100: From the protection of different and unequal
        !           101: faculties of acquiring property, the possession of
        !           102: different degrees and kinds of property immediately results;
        !           103: and from the influence of these on the sentiments and views
        !           104: of the respective proprietors ensues a division of the
        !           105: society into different interests and parties.
        !           106:    The latent causes of faction are thus sown in the
        !           107: nature of man; and we see them everywhere brought
        !           108: into different degrees of activity, according to the
        !           109: different circumstances of civil society.
        !           110: A zeal for different opinions
        !           111: concerning religion, concerning government, and
        !           112: many other points, as well of speculation as of practice;
        !           113: an attachment to different leaders ambitiously contending
        !           114: for pre-eminence and power; or to persons of other
        !           115: descriptions whose fortunes have been interesting to the
        !           116: human passions, have, in turn, divided mankind into
        !           117: parties, inflamed them with mutual animosity, and
        !           118: rendered them much more disposed to vex and oppress each
        !           119: other than to co-operate for their common goal.
        !           120: So strong is this propensity of mankind to fall into mutual
        !           121: animosities that where no substantial occasion presents
        !           122: itself the most frivolous and fanciful distinctions have
        !           123: been sufficient to kindle their unfriendly passions and
        !           124: excite their most violent conflicts.
        !           125: But the most common and durable
        !           126: source of factions has been the verious
        !           127: and unequal distribution of property.
        !           128: Those who hold and those who are without
        !           129: property have ever formed distinct
        !           130: interests in society.
        !           131: Those who are creditors, and those
        !           132: who are debtors, fall under a like discrimination.
        !           133: A landed interest, a manufacturing interest,
        !           134: a mercantile interest, a moneyed interest,
        !           135: with many lesser interests, grow up of
        !           136: necessity in civilized nations, and divided them into
        !           137: different classes, actuated by different sentiments and views.
        !           138: The regulation of these various and interfering interests
        !           139: involves the spirit of party and faction in the necessary
        !           140: and ordinary operations of government.
        !           141:    No man is allowed to be a judge in has own cause,
        !           142: because his interest would certainly bias his judgement,
        !           143: and, not improbably, corrupt his integrity.
        !           144: With equal, nay with greater reason, a body
        !           145: of men are unfit to be both judges and parties at the same time;
        !           146: yet what are many of the most important acts of
        !           147: legislation but so many judicial determinations,
        !           148: not indeed concerning the
        !           149: rights of single person, but concerning the rights of large
        !           150: bodies of citizens?
        !           151: And what are the different classes of legislators but
        !           152: advocates and parties to the causes which
        !           153: they determine?
        !           154: Is a law proposed concerning private
        !           155: debts?
        !           156: It is a question to which the creditors are parties
        !           157: one one side and the debtors on the other.
        !           158: Justice ought to hold the balance
        !           159: between them.
        !           160: Yet the parties are, and must be,
        !           161: themselves the judges; and the most numerous
        !           162: party, or in other words, the most powerful faction must
        !           163: be expected to prevail.
        !           164: Shall domestic manufacturers be
        !           165: encouraged, and in what degree, by restrictions on foreign
        !           166: manufacturers?
        !           167: are questions which would be differently
        !           168: decided by the landed and the manufacturing classes, and
        !           169: probably by neither with a sole regard to justice and the
        !           170: public good.
        !           171: The apportionment of taxes on the various
        !           172: descriptions of property is an act which seems to require
        !           173: the most exact impartiality; yet there is, perhaps, no
        !           174: legislative act in which greater opportunity and
        !           175: temptation are given to a predominant party to trample on the
        !           176: rules of justice.
        !           177: Every shilling with which they overburden the inferior
        !           178: number is a shilling saved to their own pockets.
        !           179:    It is in vain to say that enlightened statesmen will be
        !           180: able to adjust these clashing interests and render them
        !           181: all subservient to the public good.
        !           182: Enlightened statesmen will not
        !           183: always be at the helm.
        !           184: Nor, in many cases, can
        !           185: such an adjustment be made at all without taking into
        !           186: view indirect and remote considerations, which will rarely
        !           187: prevail over the immediate interest which one party may
        !           188: find in disregarding the rights of another or the good of
        !           189: the whole.
        !           190:    The inference to which we are brought is that the causes
        !           191: of faction cannot be removed and that relief is only to be
        !           192: sought in the means of controlling its effects.
        !           193:    If a faction consists of less than a majority, relief is
        !           194: supplied by the republican principle, which enables the
        !           195: majority to defeat its sinister views by regular vote.
        !           196: It may clog the administration, it may convulse the society;
        !           197: But it will be unable to execute and mask its violence
        !           198: under the forms of the Constitution.
        !           199: When a majority is included in a faction,
        !           200: The form of popular government, on
        !           201: the other hand, enables it to sacrifice to its ruling passion
        !           202: or interest both the public good and the rights of other
        !           203: citizens.
        !           204: To secure the public good and private rights
        !           205: against the danger of such a faction, and at the same
        !           206: time to preserve the spirit and form of popular
        !           207: government, is than the great object to which our inquiries
        !           208: are directed.
        !           209: Let me add that it is the great desideratum by which
        !           210: alone this form of government can be rescued from
        !           211: the opprobrium under which it has so long labored and
        !           212: be recommended to the esteem and adoption of mankind.
        !           213: #create federal
        !           214: Among the numerous advantages promised by a well-constructed
        !           215: Union, none deserves to be more accurately
        !           216: developed than its tendency to break and control the violence
        !           217: of faction.
        !           218: The friend of popular governments never finds himself
        !           219: so much alarmed for their character and fate as when he
        !           220: contemplates their propensity to this dangerous vice.
        !           221: He will not fail, therefore, to set a due value on
        !           222: any plan which, without violating the principles to which
        !           223: he is attached, provides a proper cure for it.
        !           224: The instability, injustice, and confusion introduced into the public
        !           225: councils have, in truth, been the mortal diseases under
        !           226: which popular governments have everywhere perished, as
        !           227: they continue to be the favorite and fruitful topics from
        !           228: which the adversaries to liberty derive their most specious
        !           229: declamations.
        !           230: The valuable improvements made by the American constitutions
        !           231: on the popular models, both ancient
        !           232: and modern, cannot certainly be too much admired;
        !           233: but it would be an unwarrantable partiality to cotnend
        !           234: that they have as effectually obviated the danger on this
        !           235: side, as was wished and expected.
        !           236: Complaints are everywhere heard from our most considerate and virtuous
        !           237: citizens, equally the friends of public and private faith
        !           238: and of public and personal liberty, that out governments
        !           239: are too unstable, that the public good is disregarded in
        !           240: the conflicts of rival parties, and that measures are too
        !           241: often decided, not according to the rules of justice and
        !           242: the rights of the minor party, but by the superior force
        !           243: of an interested and overbearing majority.
        !           244: However anxiously we may wish that these complaints had no
        !           245: foundation, the evidence of known facts will not permit
        !           246: us to deny that they are in some degree true.
        !           247: It will be found, indeed, on a candid review of our situation, that
        !           248: some of the distresses under which we labor have been
        !           249: erroneously charged on the operation of our governments;
        !           250: but it will be found, at the same time, that other
        !           251: causes will not alone account for many of our heaviest
        !           252: misfortunes; and, particularly, for that prevailing and increasing
        !           253: distrust of public engagements and aalarm for
        !           254: private rights which are echoed from one end of the
        !           255: continent to the other.
        !           256: These must be chiefly, if not wholly,
        !           257: effects of the unsteadiness and injustice with
        !           258: which a factious spirit has tainted out public administration.
        !           259:    By a faction I understand a number of citizens,
        !           260: whether amounting to a majority or minority of the whole,
        !           261: who are united and actuated by some common impulse
        !           262: of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other
        !           263: citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of
        !           264: the community.
        !           265:    There are two methods of curing the mischiefs of
        !           266: faction: The one,
        !           267: by removing its causes; the other, by controlling
        !           268: its effects.
        !           269:    There are again two methods of removing the causes of faction:
        !           270: The one, by destroying the liberty which is essential to its existence;
        !           271: The other, by giving to every
        !           272: citizen the same opinions, the same passions, and the
        !           273: same interests.
        !           274:    It could never be more truly said than of the first
        !           275: remedy that it was worse than the disease.
        !           276: Liberty is to
        !           277: faction what air is to fire, an ailment without which it
        !           278: instantly expires.
        !           279: But it could not be less folly to
        !           280: abolish liberty, which is essential to political life,
        !           281: because it nourishes faction than it would be to wish the
        !           282: annihilation of air, which is essential to animal life,
        !           283: because it imparts to dire its destructive agency.
        !           284:    The second exedient is as impracticable as the first
        !           285: would be unwise.
        !           286: As long as the reason of man continues
        !           287: fallible, and he is at liberty to exercise it, different 
        !           288: opinions will be formed.
        !           289: As long as the connection subsists
        !           290: between his reason and his self-love, his opinions and his
        !           291: passions will have a reciprocal influence on each other;
        !           292: and the former will be objects to which the latter will
        !           293: attach themselves.
        !           294: The diversity in the faculties of men,
        !           295: from which the rights of property originate, is not less an
        !           296: insuperable obstacle to the uniformity of interests.
        !           297: The protection of these faculties is the first object of
        !           298: government.
        !           299: From the protection of different and unequal
        !           300: faculties of acquiring property, the possession of
        !           301: different degrees and kinds of property immediately results;
        !           302: and from the influence of these on the sentiments and views
        !           303: of the respective proprietors ensues a division of the
        !           304: society into different interests and parties.
        !           305:    The latent causes of faction are thus sown in the
        !           306: nature of man; and we see them everywhere brought
        !           307: into different degrees of activity, according to the
        !           308: different circumstances of civil society.
        !           309: A zeal for different opinions
        !           310: concerning religion, concerning government, and
        !           311: many other points, as well of speculation as of practice;
        !           312: an attachment to different leaders ambitiously contending
        !           313: for pre-eminence and power; or to persons of other
        !           314: descriptions whose fortunes have been interesting to the
        !           315: human passions, have, in turn, divided mankind into
        !           316: parties, inflamed them with mutual animosity, and
        !           317: rendered them much more disposed to vex and oppress each
        !           318: other than to co-operate for their common goal.
        !           319: So strong is this propensity of mankind to fall into mutual
        !           320: animosities that where no substantial occasion presents
        !           321: itself the most frivolous and fanciful distinctions have
        !           322: been sufficient to kindle their unfriendly passions and
        !           323: excite their most violent conflicts.
        !           324: But the most common and drabel
        !           325: source of factions has been the verious
        !           326: and unequal distribution of property.
        !           327: Those who hold and those who are without
        !           328: property have ever formed distinct
        !           329: interests in society.
        !           330: Those who are creditors, and those
        !           331: who are debtors, fall under a like discrimination.
        !           332: A landed interest, a manufacturing interest,
        !           333: a mercantile interest, a moneyed interest,
        !           334: with many lesser interests, grow up of
        !           335: necessity in civilized nations, and divided them into
        !           336: different classes, actuated by different sentiments and views.
        !           337: The regulation of these various and interfering interests
        !           338: involves the spirit of party and faction in the necessary
        !           339: and ordinary operations of government.
        !           340:    No man is allowed to be a judge in has own cause,
        !           341: because his interest would certainly bias his judgement,
        !           342: and, not improbably, corrupt his integrity.
        !           343: With equal, nay with greater reason, a body
        !           344: of men are unfit to be both ugdes and parties at the same time;
        !           345: yet what are many of the most important acts of
        !           346: legislation but so many judicial determinations,
        !           347: not indeed concerning the
        !           348: rights of single person, but concerning the rights of large
        !           349: bodies of citizens?
        !           350: And what are the different classes of legislators but
        !           351: advocates and parties to the causes which
        !           352: they determine?
        !           353: Is a law proposed concerning private
        !           354: debts?
        !           355: It is a question to which the creditors are parties
        !           356: one one side and the debtors on the other.
        !           357: Justice ought to hold the balance
        !           358: between them.
        !           359: Yet the parties are, and must be,
        !           360: themselves the judges; and the most numerous
        !           361: party, or in other words, the most powerful faction must
        !           362: be expected to prevail.
        !           363: Shall domestic manufacturers be
        !           364: encouraged, and in what degree, by restrictions on foreign
        !           365: manufacturers?
        !           366: are questions which would be differently
        !           367: decided by the landed and the manufacturing classes, and
        !           368: probably by neither with a sole regard to justice and the
        !           369: public good.
        !           370: The apportionment of taxes on the various
        !           371: descriptions of property is an act which seems to require
        !           372: the most exact impartiality; yet there is, perhaps, no
        !           373: legislative act in which greater opportunity and
        !           374: temptation are given to a predominant party to trame on the
        !           375: rules of justice.
        !           376: Every shilling with which they overburden the inferior
        !           377: number is a shilling saved to their own pockets.
        !           378:    It is in vain to say that enlightened statesmen will be
        !           379: able to adjust these clashing interests and render them
        !           380: all subservient to the public good.
        !           381: Enlightened statesmen will not
        !           382: always be at the helm.
        !           383: Nor, in many cases, can
        !           384: such an adjustment be made at all without taking into
        !           385: view indirect and remote considerations, which will rarely
        !           386: prevail over the immediate interest which one party may
        !           387: find in disregarding the rights of another or the good of
        !           388: the whole.
        !           389:    The inference to which we are brought is that the causes
        !           390: of faction cannot be removed and that relief is only to be
        !           391: sought in the means of controlling its effects.
        !           392:    If a faction consists of less than a majority, relief is
        !           393: supplied by the republican principle, which enables the
        !           394: majority to defeat its sinister viws by regular vote.
        !           395: It may clog the administration, it may convulse the society;
        !           396: But it will be unable to execute and mask its violence
        !           397: under the forms of the Constitution.
        !           398: When a majority is included in a faction,
        !           399: The form of popular government, on
        !           400: the other hand, enables it to sacrifice to its ruling passion
        !           401: or interest both the public good and the rights of other
        !           402: citizens.
        !           403: To secure the public good and private rights
        !           404: against the danger of such a faction, and at the same
        !           405: time to preserve the spirit and form of popular
        !           406: government, is than the great object to which our inquiries
        !           407: are directed.
        !           408: Let me add that it is the great desideratum by which
        !           409: alone this form of government can be rescued from
        !           410: the opprobrium under which it has so long labored and
        !           411: be recommended to the esteem and adoption of mankind.
        !           412: #user
        !           413: #cmp federal Ref
        !           414: #log
        !           415: #next
        !           416: 54.1a 10

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