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1.1     ! root        1: .\"    @(#)u1  6.1 (Berkeley) 5/22/86
        !             2: .\"
        !             3: .nr PS 9
        !             4: .if t .nr VS 11
        !             5: .if n .ls 2
        !             6: .if t .2C
        !             7: .nr PI .25i
        !             8: .SH
        !             9: INTRODUCTION
        !            10: .PP
        !            11: From the user's point of view,
        !            12: the
        !            13: .UC UNIX
        !            14: operating system
        !            15: is easy
        !            16: to learn and use,
        !            17: and presents few of the usual impediments
        !            18: to getting the job done.
        !            19: It is hard, however, for the beginner
        !            20: to know where to start,
        !            21: and how to make the best use 
        !            22: of the facilities available.
        !            23: The purpose of this introduction
        !            24: is to help new users
        !            25: get used to the main ideas of 
        !            26: the
        !            27: .UC UNIX
        !            28: system
        !            29: and start making effective use of it quickly.
        !            30: .PP
        !            31: You should have a couple of other documents with you
        !            32: for easy reference as you read this one.
        !            33: The most important is
        !            34: .ul
        !            35: The
        !            36: .ul
        !            37: .UC UNIX
        !            38: .IT Programmer's
        !            39: .IT Manual \|;
        !            40: it's often easier to tell you to read about something
        !            41: in the manual
        !            42: than to repeat its contents here.
        !            43: The other useful document is
        !            44: .ul
        !            45: A Tutorial Introduction to the
        !            46: .ul
        !            47: .UC UNIX
        !            48: .ul
        !            49: Text Editor,
        !            50: which will tell you how to use the editor
        !            51: to get text \(em
        !            52: programs, data, documents \(em
        !            53: into the computer.
        !            54: .PP
        !            55: A word of warning:
        !            56: the
        !            57: .UC UNIX
        !            58: system
        !            59: has become quite popular,
        !            60: and there are several major variants
        !            61: in widespread use.
        !            62: Of course details also change with time.
        !            63: So although the basic structure of 
        !            64: .UC UNIX
        !            65: and how to use it is common to all versions,
        !            66: there will certainly be a few things
        !            67: which are different on your system from
        !            68: what is described here.
        !            69: We have tried to minimize the problem,
        !            70: but be aware of it.
        !            71: In cases of doubt,
        !            72: this paper describes Version 7 
        !            73: .UC UNIX .
        !            74: .PP
        !            75: This paper has five sections:
        !            76: .IP "\ \ 1."
        !            77: Getting Started:
        !            78: How to log in,
        !            79: how to type,
        !            80: what to do about mistakes in typing,
        !            81: how to log out.
        !            82: Some of this is dependent on which
        !            83: system
        !            84: you log into
        !            85: (phone numbers, for example)
        !            86: and what terminal you use,
        !            87: so this section must necessarily be supplemented
        !            88: by local information.
        !            89: .IP "\ \ 2."
        !            90: Day-to-day Use:
        !            91: Things you need every day to use
        !            92: the system
        !            93: effectively:
        !            94: generally useful commands;
        !            95: the file system.
        !            96: .IP "\ \ 3."
        !            97: Document Preparation:
        !            98: Preparing manu\%scripts is one of the most common uses
        !            99: for
        !           100: .UC UNIX
        !           101: systems.
        !           102: This section contains advice,
        !           103: but not
        !           104: extensive instructions on any
        !           105: of the formatting tools.
        !           106: .IP "\ \ 4."
        !           107: Writing Programs:
        !           108: .UC UNIX
        !           109: is an excellent system for developing programs.
        !           110: This section talks about some of the tools,
        !           111: but again is not a tutorial in any of the programming languages
        !           112: provided by the system.
        !           113: .IP "\ \ 5."
        !           114: A
        !           115: .UC UNIX
        !           116: Reading List.
        !           117: An annotated bibliography of 
        !           118: documents that new users should be aware of.
        !           119: .SH
        !           120: I.  GETTING STARTED
        !           121: .SH
        !           122: Logging In
        !           123: .PP
        !           124: You must have a 
        !           125: .UC UNIX
        !           126: login name, which you can get from
        !           127: whoever administers your system.
        !           128: You also need to know the phone number,
        !           129: unless your system uses permanently connected terminals.
        !           130: The
        !           131: .UC UNIX
        !           132: system
        !           133: is capable of dealing with a wide variety of terminals:
        !           134: Terminet 300's; Execuport, TI and similar
        !           135: portables;
        !           136: video (CRT) terminals like the HP2640, etc.;
        !           137: high-priced graphics terminals like the Tektronix 4014;
        !           138: plotting terminals like those from GSI and DASI;
        !           139: and even the venerable
        !           140: Teletype in its various forms.
        !           141: But note:
        !           142: .UC UNIX
        !           143: is strongly oriented towards devices with 
        !           144: .ul
        !           145: lower case.
        !           146: If your terminal produces only upper case (e.g., model 33 Teletype, some video and portable terminals),
        !           147: life will be so difficult that you should look for another
        !           148: terminal.
        !           149: .PP
        !           150: Be sure to set the switches appropriately on your device.
        !           151: Switches that might need to be adjusted include the speed,
        !           152: upper/lower case mode,
        !           153: full duplex, even parity, and any others
        !           154: that local wisdom advises.
        !           155: Establish a connection using whatever
        !           156: magic is needed for your terminal;
        !           157: this may involve dialing a telephone call or merely flipping a switch.
        !           158: In either case,
        !           159: .UC UNIX
        !           160: should type
        !           161: .UL login: '' ``
        !           162: at you.
        !           163: If it types garbage, you may be at the wrong speed;
        !           164: check the switches.
        !           165: If that fails,
        !           166: push the ``break'' or ``interrupt'' key a few times, slowly.
        !           167: If that fails to produce a login message, consult a guru.
        !           168: .PP
        !           169: When you get a
        !           170: .UL login:
        !           171: message,
        !           172: type your
        !           173: login name
        !           174: .ul
        !           175: in lower case.
        !           176: Follow it by a 
        !           177: .UC RETURN ;
        !           178: the system will not do anything until you type a
        !           179: .UC RETURN .
        !           180: If a password is required,
        !           181: you will be asked for it,
        !           182: and (if possible)
        !           183: printing will be turned off while you type it.
        !           184: Don't forget
        !           185: .UC RETURN .
        !           186: .PP
        !           187: The culmination of your login efforts is a
        !           188: ``prompt character,''
        !           189: a single character that indicates that
        !           190: the system
        !           191: is ready to accept commands from you.
        !           192: The prompt character is usually a 
        !           193: dollar sign
        !           194: .UL $
        !           195: or a
        !           196: percent sign
        !           197: .UL % .
        !           198: (You may also get a message of the day just before the
        !           199: prompt character, or a notification that you have mail.)
        !           200: .SH
        !           201: Typing Commands
        !           202: .PP
        !           203: Once you've seen the prompt character, you can type commands,
        !           204: which are
        !           205: requests that
        !           206: the system
        !           207: do something.
        !           208: Try typing
        !           209: .P1
        !           210: date
        !           211: .P2
        !           212: followed by 
        !           213: .UC RETURN.
        !           214: You should get back something like
        !           215: .P1
        !           216: Mon Jan 16 14:17:10 EST 1978
        !           217: .P2
        !           218: Don't forget the
        !           219: .UC RETURN
        !           220: after the command,
        !           221: or nothing will happen.
        !           222: If you think you're being ignored,
        !           223: type a
        !           224: .UC RETURN ;
        !           225: something should happen.
        !           226: .UC RETURN
        !           227: won't be mentioned
        !           228: again,
        !           229: but don't forget it \(em
        !           230: it has to be there
        !           231: at the end of each line.
        !           232: .PP
        !           233: Another command you might try is
        !           234: .UL who ,
        !           235: which tells you everyone who is currently logged in:
        !           236: .P1
        !           237: who
        !           238: .P2
        !           239: gives something like
        !           240: .P1
        !           241: .ta .5i 1i
        !           242: mb     tty01   Jan 16    09:11
        !           243: ski    tty05   Jan 16    09:33
        !           244: gam    tty11   Jan 16    13:07
        !           245: .P2
        !           246: The time is when the user logged in;
        !           247: ``ttyxx'' is the system's idea of what terminal
        !           248: the user is on.
        !           249: .PP
        !           250: If you make a mistake typing the command name,
        !           251: and refer to a non-existent command,
        !           252: you will be told.
        !           253: For example, if you type
        !           254: .P1
        !           255: whom
        !           256: .P2
        !           257: you will be told 
        !           258: .P1
        !           259: whom: not found
        !           260: .P2
        !           261: Of course, if you inadvertently type the name of some other command,
        !           262: it will run,
        !           263: with more or less mysterious results.
        !           264: .SH
        !           265: Strange Terminal Behavior
        !           266: .PP
        !           267: Sometimes you can get into a state
        !           268: where your terminal acts strangely.
        !           269: For example,
        !           270: each letter may be typed twice,
        !           271: or the
        !           272: .UC RETURN
        !           273: may not cause a line feed
        !           274: or a return to the left margin.
        !           275: You can often fix this by logging out and logging back in.\(dg
        !           276: .FS
        !           277: \(dg In Berkeley Unix, the command "reset<control-j>"
        !           278: will often reset a terminal apparently in a strange state because a fullscreen
        !           279: editor crashed.
        !           280: .FE
        !           281: .FE
        !           282: Or you can read the description of the command
        !           283: .UL stty
        !           284: in section 1 of the manual.
        !           285: To get intelligent treatment of
        !           286: tab characters
        !           287: (which are much used in
        !           288: .UC UNIX )
        !           289: if your terminal doesn't have tabs,
        !           290: type the command
        !           291: .P1
        !           292: stty \-tabs
        !           293: .P2
        !           294: and the system will convert each tab into the right number
        !           295: of blanks for you.
        !           296: If your terminal does have computer-settable tabs,
        !           297: the command
        !           298: .UL tabs
        !           299: will set the stops correctly for you.
        !           300: .SH
        !           301: Mistakes in Typing
        !           302: .PP
        !           303: If you make a typing mistake, and see it before
        !           304: .UC RETURN
        !           305: has been typed,
        !           306: there are two ways to recover.
        !           307: The sharp-character
        !           308: .UL #
        !           309: erases the last character typed;
        !           310: in fact successive uses of
        !           311: .UL #
        !           312: erase characters back to
        !           313: the beginning of the line (but not beyond).
        !           314: So if you type badly, you can correct as you go:
        !           315: .P1
        !           316: dd#atte##e
        !           317: .P2
        !           318: is the same as
        !           319: .UL date .\(dd
        !           320: .FS
        !           321: \(dd Many installations set the erase character for display terminals to
        !           322: the delete or backspace key. "stty all" tells you what it actually is.
        !           323: .FE
        !           324: .PP
        !           325: The at-sign
        !           326: .UL @
        !           327: erases all of the characters
        !           328: typed so far
        !           329: on the current input line,
        !           330: so if the line is irretrievably fouled up, type an
        !           331: .UL @
        !           332: and start the line over.
        !           333: .PP
        !           334: What if you must enter a sharp or at-sign
        !           335: as part of the text?
        !           336: If you precede either
        !           337: .UL #
        !           338: or
        !           339: .UL @
        !           340: by a backslash
        !           341: .UL \e ,
        !           342: it loses its erase meaning.
        !           343: So to enter a sharp or at-sign in something, type
        !           344: .UL \e# 
        !           345: or
        !           346: .UL \e@ .
        !           347: The system will always echo a newline at you after your at-sign,
        !           348: even if preceded by a backslash.
        !           349: Don't worry \(em
        !           350: the at-sign has been recorded.
        !           351: .PP
        !           352: To erase a backslash,
        !           353: you have to type two sharps or two at-signs, as in
        !           354: .UL \e## .
        !           355: The backslash is used extensively in
        !           356: .UC UNIX
        !           357: to indicate that the following character is in some way special.
        !           358: .SH
        !           359: Read-ahead
        !           360: .PP
        !           361: .UC UNIX
        !           362: has full read-ahead,
        !           363: which means that you can type as fast as you want,
        !           364: whenever you want,
        !           365: even when some command is typing at you.
        !           366: If you type during output,
        !           367: your input characters will appear intermixed with the output characters,
        !           368: but they will be stored away
        !           369: and interpreted in the correct order.
        !           370: So you can type several commands one after another without
        !           371: waiting for the first to finish or even begin.
        !           372: .SH
        !           373: Stopping a Program
        !           374: .PP
        !           375: You can stop most programs by
        !           376: typing the character
        !           377: .UC DEL '' ``
        !           378: (perhaps called ``delete'' or ``rubout'' on your terminal).
        !           379: The ``interrupt'' or ``break'' key found on most terminals
        !           380: can also be used.\(dg
        !           381: .FS
        !           382: \(dg In Berkeley Unix, "control-c" is the usual way to stop programs. "stty all"
        !           383: tells you the value of your "intr" key.
        !           384: .FE
        !           385: In a few programs, like the text editor,
        !           386: .UC DEL
        !           387: stops whatever the program is doing but leaves you in that program.
        !           388: Hanging up the phone will stop most programs.\(dd
        !           389: .FS
        !           390: \(dd If you use the c shell, programs running in the background continue 
        !           391: running even if you hang up.
        !           392: .FE
        !           393: .SH
        !           394: Logging Out
        !           395: .PP
        !           396: The easiest way to log out is to hang up the phone.
        !           397: You can also type
        !           398: .P1
        !           399: login
        !           400: .P2
        !           401: and let someone else use the terminal you were on.*
        !           402: .FS
        !           403: * "control-d" and "logout" are other alternatives.
        !           404: .FE
        !           405: It is usually not sufficient just to turn off the terminal.
        !           406: Most
        !           407: .UC UNIX
        !           408: systems
        !           409: do not use a time-out mechanism, so you'll be
        !           410: there forever unless you hang up.
        !           411: .SH
        !           412: Mail
        !           413: .PP
        !           414: When you log in, you may sometimes get the message
        !           415: .P1
        !           416: You have mail.
        !           417: .P2
        !           418: .UC UNIX
        !           419: provides a postal system so you can
        !           420: communicate with
        !           421: other users of the system.
        !           422: To read your mail,
        !           423: type the command
        !           424: .P1
        !           425: mail
        !           426: .P2
        !           427: Your mail will be printed,
        !           428: one message at a time,
        !           429: most recent message first.\(dd
        !           430: .FS
        !           431: \(dd The Berkeley mail program lists the headers of some number of unread pieces 
        !           432: of mail in the order of their receipt.
        !           433: .FE
        !           434: After each message,
        !           435: .UL mail
        !           436: waits for you to say what to do with it.
        !           437: The two basic responses are
        !           438: .UL d ,
        !           439: which deletes the message,
        !           440: and
        !           441: .UC RETURN ,
        !           442: which does not
        !           443: (so it will still be there the next time you read your mailbox).
        !           444: Other responses are described in the manual.
        !           445: (Earlier versions of
        !           446: .UL mail
        !           447: do not process one message at a time,
        !           448: but are otherwise similar.)
        !           449: .PP
        !           450: How do you send mail to someone else?
        !           451: Suppose it is to go to ``joe'' (assuming ``joe'' is someone's login name).
        !           452: The easiest way is this:
        !           453: .P1
        !           454: mail joe
        !           455: .ft I
        !           456: now type in the text of the letter
        !           457: on as many lines as you like ...
        !           458: After the last line of the letter
        !           459: type the character ``control-d'',
        !           460: that is, hold down ``control'' and type
        !           461: a letter ``d''.
        !           462: .P2
        !           463: And that's it.
        !           464: The ``control-d'' sequence, often called ``EOF'' for end-of-file, is used throughout 
        !           465: the system
        !           466: to mark the end of input from a terminal,
        !           467: so you might as well get used to it.
        !           468: .PP
        !           469: For practice, send mail to yourself.
        !           470: (This isn't as strange as it might sound \(em
        !           471: mail to oneself is a handy reminder mechanism.)
        !           472: .PP
        !           473: There are other ways to send mail \(em
        !           474: you can send a previously prepared letter,
        !           475: and you can mail to a number of people all at once.
        !           476: For more details see
        !           477: .UL mail (1).
        !           478: (The notation
        !           479: .UL mail (1)
        !           480: means the command 
        !           481: .UL mail
        !           482: in section 1
        !           483: of the
        !           484: .ul
        !           485: .UC UNIX
        !           486: .ul
        !           487: .IT Programmer's
        !           488: .IT Manual .)
        !           489: .SH
        !           490: Writing to other users\(dg
        !           491: .FS
        !           492: \(dg Although "write" works on Berkeley
        !           493: .UC UNIX,
        !           494: there is a much nicer way of communicating using display-terminals \(em
        !           495: "talk" splits the screen into two sections, and both of you can type 
        !           496: simultaneously (see talk(1)).
        !           497: .FE
        !           498: .PP
        !           499: At some point, 
        !           500: out of the blue will come a message
        !           501: like
        !           502: .P1
        !           503: Message from joe tty07...
        !           504: .P2
        !           505: accompanied by a startling beep.
        !           506: It means that Joe wants to talk to you,
        !           507: but unless you take explicit action you won't be able to talk back.
        !           508: To respond,
        !           509: type the command
        !           510: .P1
        !           511: write joe
        !           512: .P2
        !           513: This establishes a two-way communication path.
        !           514: Now whatever Joe types on his terminal will appear on yours
        !           515: and vice versa.
        !           516: The path is slow, rather like talking to the moon.
        !           517: (If you are in the middle of something, you have to
        !           518: get to a state where you can type a command.
        !           519: Normally, whatever program you are running has to terminate or be terminated.
        !           520: If you're editing, you can escape temporarily from the editor \(em
        !           521: read the editor tutorial.)
        !           522: .PP
        !           523: A protocol is needed to keep what you type from getting
        !           524: garbled up with what Joe types. 
        !           525: Typically it's like this:
        !           526: .P1
        !           527: .tr --
        !           528: .fi
        !           529: .ft R
        !           530: Joe types
        !           531: .UL write
        !           532: .UL smith
        !           533: and waits.
        !           534: .br
        !           535: Smith types
        !           536: .UL write
        !           537: .UL joe
        !           538: and waits.
        !           539: .br
        !           540: Joe now types his message
        !           541: (as many lines as he likes).
        !           542: When he's ready for a reply, he
        !           543: signals it by typing
        !           544: .UL (o) ,
        !           545: which
        !           546: stands for ``over''.
        !           547: .br
        !           548: Now Smith types a reply, also
        !           549: terminated by
        !           550: .UL (o) .
        !           551: .br
        !           552: This cycle repeats until
        !           553: someone gets tired; he then
        !           554: signals his intent to quit with
        !           555: .UL (oo) ,
        !           556: for ``over
        !           557: and out''.
        !           558: .br
        !           559: To terminate
        !           560: the conversation, each side must
        !           561: type a ``control-d'' character alone
        !           562: on a line. (``Delete'' also works.)
        !           563: When the other person types his ``control-d'',
        !           564: you will get the message
        !           565: .UL EOF
        !           566: on your terminal.
        !           567: .P2
        !           568: .PP
        !           569: If you write to someone who isn't logged in,
        !           570: or who doesn't want to be disturbed,
        !           571: you'll be told.
        !           572: If the target is logged in but doesn't answer
        !           573: after a decent interval,
        !           574: simply type ``control-d''.
        !           575: .SH
        !           576: On-line Manual
        !           577: .PP
        !           578: The 
        !           579: .ul
        !           580: .UC UNIX
        !           581: .ul
        !           582: Programmer's Manual
        !           583: is typically kept on-line.
        !           584: If you get stuck on something,
        !           585: and can't find an expert to assist you,
        !           586: you can print on your terminal some manual section that might help.
        !           587: This is also useful for getting the most up-to-date
        !           588: information on a command.
        !           589: To print a manual section, type
        !           590: ``man command-name''.
        !           591: Thus to read up on the 
        !           592: .UL who
        !           593: command,
        !           594: type
        !           595: .P1
        !           596: man who
        !           597: .P2
        !           598: and, of course,
        !           599: .P1
        !           600: man man
        !           601: .P2
        !           602: tells all about the
        !           603: .UL man
        !           604: command.
        !           605: .SH
        !           606: Computer Aided Instruction
        !           607: .PP
        !           608: Your
        !           609: .UC UNIX
        !           610: system may have available
        !           611: a program called
        !           612: .UL learn ,
        !           613: which provides computer aided instruction on
        !           614: the file system and basic commands,
        !           615: the editor,
        !           616: document preparation,
        !           617: and even C programming.
        !           618: Try typing the command
        !           619: .P1
        !           620: learn
        !           621: .P2
        !           622: If 
        !           623: .UL learn
        !           624: exists on your system,
        !           625: it will tell you what to do from there.

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