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1.1 root 1: .tr |
2: .bp
3: .ce
4: HOW TO GET STARTED
5: .sp 1.5
6: This section provides the basic information
7: you need to get started on \s8UNIX\s10:
8: how to log in and log out,
9: how to communicate through your terminal,
10: and how to run a program.
11: .pg
12: .ft I
13: Logging in.||
14: .ft R
15: You must call \s8UNIX\s10 from an appropriate terminal.
16: \s8UNIX\s10 supports \s8ASCII\s10 terminals typified by the \s8TTY\s10 37,
17: the GE Terminet 300, the Memorex 1240, and various
18: graphical terminals.
19: You must also have a valid user name,
20: which may be obtained, together with the telephone number, from the system administrators.
21: The same telephone number
22: serves terminals operating at all the standard speeds.
23: After a data connection is established,
24: the login procedure depends on what kind of terminal
25: you are using.
26: .pg
27: .in .5i
28: .ul
29: \s8TTY\s10 37 terminal:||
30: \s8UNIX\s10 will type out ``login: ''; you respond with
31: your user name.
32: From the \s8TTY\s10 37 terminal, and any other which has the ``new-line''
33: function (combined carriage return and linefeed), terminate each line you type with the
34: ``new-line'' key
35: (\fInot\fR the ``return'' key).
36: .pg
37: .ul
38: 300-baud terminals:||
39: Such terminals include the GE Terminet 300, most display terminals,
40: Execuport, TI, and certain
41: Anderson-Jacobson terminals.
42: These terminals generally have a speed
43: switch which should be set at ``300'' (or ``30'' for
44: 30 characters per second)
45: and a half/full duplex switch which should be set at
46: full-duplex.
47: (Note that this switch will often have to be changed
48: since many other systems require half-duplex).
49: When a connection is established, a few garbage
50: characters are typed (the login message at the wrong speed).
51: Depress the ``break'' key;
52: this is a speed-independent signal to \s8UNIX\s10 that a 300-baud
53: terminal is in use.
54: \s8UNIX\s10 will type ``login: '' at the correct speed; you type your
55: user name, followed by the ``return'' key.
56: Henceforth, the ``return'', ``new line'', or ``linefeed'' keys
57: will give exactly the same results.
58: .pg
59: .in 0
60: For all these terminals, it is important
61: that you type your name in lower case if possible; if you type
62: upper case letters, \s8UNIX\s10
63: will assume that your terminal cannot generate lower-case
64: letters and will translate all subsequent upper-case
65: letters to lower case.
66: .pg
67: The evidence that you have successfully
68: logged in is that the Shell program
69: will type a ``%'' to you.
70: (The Shell is described below under
71: ``How to run a program.'')
72: .pg
73: For more information, consult
74: \fIgetty\fR (VII), which discusses the login sequence in more
75: detail, and \fIdc\fR (IV), which discusses typewriter I/O.
76: .pg
77: .ul
78: Logging out.||
79: There are three ways to log out:
80: .pg
81: .in .5i
82: You can simply hang up the phone.
83: .pg
84: You can log out by typing an end-of-file indication
85: (EOT character, control ``d'') to the Shell.
86: The Shell will terminate and the ``login: '' message
87: will appear again.
88: .pg
89: You can also log in directly as another user
90: by giving a \fIlogin\fR command (I).
91: .pg
92: .in 0
93: .ul
94: How to communicate through your terminal.||
95: When you type to \s8UNIX\s10, a gnome deep in the system
96: is gathering your characters and saving them in a secret
97: place.
98: The
99: characters will not be given to a program
100: until you type a return (or new-line), as described above
101: in
102: .ul
103: Logging in.
104: .pg
105: \s8UNIX\s10 typewriter I/O is full-duplex.
106: It has full read-ahead, which means that you can
107: type at any time,
108: even while a program is
109: typing at you.
110: Of course, if you type during output, the output will
111: have the input characters interspersed.
112: However, whatever you type will be saved
113: up and interpreted in correct sequence.
114: There is a limit to the amount of read-ahead,
115: but it is generous and not likely to be exceeded unless
116: the system is in trouble.
117: When the read-ahead limit is exceeded, the system
118: throws away all the saved characters.
119: (We reassure you that this doesn't happen often.)|
120: .pg
121: On a typewriter input line, the character ``@''
122: kills all the characters typed before it, so typing mistakes
123: can be repaired on a single line.
124: Also, the character ``#'' erases the last character typed.
125: Successive uses of ``#'' erase characters back to, but
126: not beyond, the beginning of the line.
127: ``@'' and ``#'' can be transmitted to a program
128: by preceding them with ``\\''.
129: (So, to erase ``\\'', you need two ``#''s).
130: .pg
131: The \s8ASCII\s10 ``delete'' (a.k.a. ``rubout'') character is not passed to programs
132: but instead generates
133: an
134: .ul
135: interrupt signal.
136: This signal
137: generally causes whatever program
138: you are running to terminate.
139: It is typically used to stop a long printout that
140: you don't want.
141: However, programs can arrange either to ignore
142: this signal altogether,
143: or to be notified when it happens (instead
144: of being terminated).
145: The editor, for example, catches interrupts and
146: stops what it is doing,
147: instead of terminating, so that an interrupt can
148: be used to halt an editor printout without
149: losing the file being edited.
150: .pg
151: The \fIquit\fR signal is generated
152: by typing the \s8ASCII\s10 FS character.
153: It not only causes a running program to terminate
154: but also generates a file with the core image
155: of the terminated process.
156: Quit is useful
157: for debugging.
158: .pg
159: Besides adapting to the speed of the terminal,
160: \s8UNIX\s10 tries to be intelligent about whether
161: you have a terminal with the new-line function
162: or whether it must be simulated with carriage-return
163: and line-feed.
164: In the latter case, all input carriage returns
165: are turned to new-line characters (the standard
166: line delimiter)
167: and both a carriage return and a line feed
168: are echoed to the terminal.
169: If you get into the wrong mode, the \fIstty\fR command
170: (I) will rescue you.
171: .pg
172: Tab characters are used freely in \s8UNIX\s10 source programs.
173: If your terminal does not have the tab function,
174: you can arrange to have them turned into spaces
175: during output, and echoed as spaces
176: during input.
177: The system assumes
178: that tabs are set every eight columns.
179: Again, the \fIstty\fR command (I)
180: will set or reset this mode.
181: Also, there is a file which, if printed on \s8TTY\s10 37
182: or TermiNet 300 terminals, will set the tab stops
183: correctly (\fItabs\fR (VII)).
184: .pg
185: Section \fIdc\fR (IV) discusses typewriter I/O more fully.
186: Section \fIkl\fR (IV) discusses the console typewriter.
187: .pg
188: .ul
189: How to run a program; The Shell.||
190: When you have successfully logged into \s8UNIX\s10, a program
191: called the Shell is listening to your terminal.
192: The Shell reads typed-in lines, splits them up
193: into a command name and arguments, and executes the command.
194: A command is simply an executable program.
195: The Shell looks first in your current directory
196: (see next section)
197: for a program with the given name,
198: and if none is there, then in a system directory.
199: There is nothing special about system-provided
200: commands except that they are kept in a directory
201: where the Shell can find them.
202: .pg
203: The command name is always the first word on an input line;
204: it and its arguments are separated from one another by
205: spaces.
206: .pg
207: When a program terminates, the Shell will ordinarily regain control and type
208: a ``%'' at you to indicate that it is ready for another command.
209: .pg
210: The Shell has many other capabilities, which are described in detail in section
211: \fIsh\fR\|(I).
212: .pg
213: .ul
214: The current directory.||
215: \s8UNIX\s10 has a file system arranged in a hierarchy of directories.
216: When the system administrator gave you a user name,
217: he also created a directory for you (ordinarily
218: with the same name as your user name).
219: When you log in, any file
220: name you type is by default
221: in this directory.
222: Since you are the owner of this directory, you have
223: full permissions to read, write, alter, or destroy
224: its contents.
225: Permissions to have your will with other directories
226: and files will have been granted or denied to you
227: by their owners.
228: As a matter of observed fact, few \s8UNIX\s10 users
229: protect their files from destruction,
230: let alone perusal, by other users.
231: .pg
232: To change the
233: current directory (but not the set of permissions you
234: were endowed with at login) use \fIchdir\fR (I).
235: .pg
236: .ul
237: Path names.||
238: To refer to files not in the current directory, you must
239: use a path name.
240: Full path names begin with ``/'', the name of the root directory of the
241: whole file system.
242: After the slash comes the name of each directory containing the next
243: sub-directory (followed by a ``/'') until finally the
244: file name is reached.
245: E.g.:
246: .ul
247: /\|usr/\|lem/\|filex
248: refers to the file
249: .ul
250: filex
251: in the directory
252: .ul
253: lem; lem
254: is itself a subdirectory of
255: .ul
256: usr; usr
257: springs directly from the root directory.
258: .pg
259: If your current directory has subdirectories,
260: the path names of files therein begin with
261: the name of the subdirectory (no prefixed ``/'').
262: .pg
263: Without important exception,
264: a path name may be used anywhere a file name is
265: required.
266: .pg
267: Important commands which modify the contents of files
268: are \fIcp\fR (I), \fImv\fR (I), and \fIrm\fR (I),
269: which respectively copy, move (i.e. rename) and remove files.
270: To find out the status of files or directories, use \fIls\fR (I).
271: See \fImkdir\fR (I) for making directories; \fIrmdir\fR (I) for destroying them.
272: .pg
273: For a fuller discussion of the file system, see
274: ``The \s8UNIX\s10 Time-Sharing System,''
275: by the present authors,
276: to appear in the Communications of the ACM;
277: a version is also available from the same source as this
278: manual.
279: It may also be useful to glance through
280: section II of this manual, which discusses
281: system calls, even if you don't intend
282: to deal with the system at the assembly-language level.
283: .pg
284: .ul
285: Writing a program.||
286: To enter the text of a source program into a \s8UNIX\s10 file, use \fIed\fR (I).
287: The three principal languages in \s8UNIX\s10 are
288: assembly language (see \fIas\fR (I)), Fortran (see \fIfc\fR (I)),
289: and C (see \fIcc\fR (I)).
290: After the program text has been entered through
291: the editor
292: and written on a file, you can give the file
293: to the appropriate language processor as an argument.
294: The output of the language processor
295: will be left on a file in the current directory named ``a.out''.
296: (If the output is precious, use \fImv\fR to move it to a less
297: exposed name soon.)|
298: If you wrote in assembly language, you will probably
299: need to load the program with library subroutines; see
300: \fIld \fR(I). The other two language processors call
301: the loader automatically.
302: .pg
303: When you have finally gone through this entire process
304: without provoking any diagnostics, the resulting program
305: can be run by giving its name to the Shell
306: in response to the ``%'' prompt.
307: .pg
308: The next command you will need is \fIdb\fR (I).
309: As a debugger, \fIdb\fR is better than average for
310: assembly-language programs,
311: marginally useful for C programs
312: (when completed, \fIcdb\fR (I) will be a boon),
313: and virtually useless for Fortran.
314: .pg
315: Your programs can receive arguments from the command line
316: just as system programs do.
317: See \fIexec\fR (II).
318: .pg
319: .ul
320: Text processing.||
321: Almost all text is entered through the editor.
322: The commands most often used to write text on a terminal are:
323: .ul
324: cat, pr, roff, nroff,
325: and
326: .ul
327: troff,
328: all in section I.
329: .pg
330: The \fIcat\fR command simply dumps \s8ASCII\s10 text
331: on the terminal, with no processing at all.
332: The \fIpr\fR command paginates the text, supplies headings,
333: and has a facility for multi-column output.
334: .ul
335: Troff
336: and
337: .ul
338: nroff
339: are elaborate text formatting programs,
340: and require careful forethought
341: in entering both the text and the formatting commands
342: into the input file.
343: .ul
344: Troff
345: drives a Graphic Systems phototypesetter;
346: it was used to produce this manual.
347: .ul
348: Nroff
349: produces output on a typewriter terminal.
350: .ul
351: Roff
352: (I)
353: is a somewhat less elaborate text formatting
354: program, and requires somewhat less forethought.
355: .pg
356: .ul
357: Surprises.||
358: Certain commands provide inter-user communication.
359: Even if you do not plan to use them, it would be
360: well to learn something about them, because someone else may
361: aim them at you.
362: .pg
363: To communicate with another user currently logged in,
364: .ul
365: write
366: (I)
367: is used;
368: .ul
369: mail
370: (I)
371: will leave a message whose presence will be announced
372: to another user when he next logs in.
373: The write-ups in the manual also suggest how to respond to
374: the two commands if you are a target.
375: .pg
376: When you log in, a message-of-the-day may greet you
377: before the first ``%''.
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