![[BACK]](/cvsweb/icons/back.gif){kind=icon}
Return to intro CVS log ![[TXT]](/cvsweb/icons/text.gif){kind=icon}
![[DIR]](/cvsweb/icons/dir.gif){kind=icon}
Up to [Research Unix] / researchv10dc / man / adm / man0|
Return to intro CVS log | Up to [Research Unix] / researchv10dc / man / adm / man0 |
1.1 root 1: .SP .5i
2: .TL
3: INTRODUCTION
4: .SP 2
5: .LP
6: This volume describes facilities of the version of the
7: .SM UNIX
8: operating system that is used
9: at the system's original home, the
10: computing science research center of AT&T Bell Laboratories.
11: Volume 2 discusses certain aspects of the system in more detail.
12: For tutorial information, consult a standard reference such as
13: .I "The Unix Programming Environment
14: by Kernighan and Pike.
15: .LP
16: Within the area it surveys, this volume attempts
17: to be timely, complete and concise.
18: Where the latter two objectives conflict,
19: the obvious is often left unsaid in favor of brevity.
20: It is intended that each program be described
21: as it is, not as it should be.
22: Inevitably, as snapshots of a living system, some of
23: the descriptions may soon go out of date.
24: When that happens, users may find the latest word in
25: an on-line form of this book.
26: .LP
27: The volume is divided into sections;
28: each section consists of a number of independent pages.
29: (Some `pages' spill over beyond one sheet of paper.)
30: The name of a page is in its upper corners
31: together with the section number.
32: Sections 3 and 9 have further substructure as described in
33: their respective introductions.
34: Pages are arranged alphabetically within sections.
35: Here and in much other documentation,
36: the notation
37: .I man (1)
38: refers to the page for the
39: .I man
40: command in section 1.
41: (This particular command prints selections from the on-line manual.)
42: .LP
43: There are nine printed sections and one unprinted appendix.
44: .DS
45: 1. Commands
46: 2. System calls
47: 3. Subroutines
48: 4. Devices, line disciplines, and file systems
49: 5. File formats and conventions
50: 6. Language conventions
51: 7. Information sources
52: 8. Maintenance commands and procedures
53: 9. Teletype 5620-related software
54: A. Other facilities
55: .DE
56: Section 1 describes
57: programs intended to be invoked directly by
58: the user, in contradistinction to subroutines, which are
59: intended to be called by the user's programs.
60: Essential commands generally reside in directory
61: .CW /bin
62: (for
63: .I bin \|ary
64: programs) or
65: .CW /usr/bin .
66: These directories are searched automatically by command interpreters.
67: .LP
68: Section 2 describes
69: entries into the
70: .UX
71: kernel
72: as expressed in C, the primary implementation
73: language of the system.
74: .LP
75: Section 3 discusses
76: an assortment
77: of subroutines, mostly for use with C.
78: The primary libraries in which they are kept are described in
79: .I intro (3).
80: Fortran users should consult the
81: .I port (3)
82: mathematical library.
83: .LP
84: Section 4 discusses `files'
85: that actually refer to I/O devices,
86: processing modules that modify the behavior
87: of some devices,
88: and `file systems'
89: that aren't just files on a disk.
90: .LP
91: Section 5 gives the structure of particular
92: kinds of files, for example, the form of the output of the loader and
93: assembler.
94: Files internal to only one command
95: are excluded,
96: for example compiler intermediate files.
97: .LP
98: Section 6 lists
99: macro packages, fonts, mail addressing conventions, etc.
100: .LP
101: Section 7 is a miscellaneous collection of information sources:
102: library orders, news, astronomy, geography, calendar, etc.
103: .LP
104: Section 8 discusses commands and procedures not intended
105: for use by the ordinary user.
106: Most of the commands and files described here
107: are kept in directory
108: .CW /etc.
109: .LP
110: Section 9 describes software intended for use with the Teletype
111: 5620 terminal.
112: In this category fall utilities that exploit the terminal and
113: tools for writing code to run with or on it.
114: .LP
115: Appendix A contains information about obsolescent or
116: specialized programs.
117: It is not printed, but is accessible on line through
118: .I man (1).
119: .LP
120: Not all facilities are available across all computers.
121: Pages for programs with limited distribution
122: are marked at the top
123: with the name of at least one computer
124: at the home site where
125: they are known to reside.
126: .LP
127: All pages are based on a common format,
128: not all parts of which necessarily appear.
129: .RS
130: .LP
131: The
132: .I NAME
133: subsection lists the exact names of the commands and subroutines
134: covered
135: and
136: a very short description of their purpose.
137: .LP
138: The
139: .I SYNOPSIS
140: subsection summarizes the use of the
141: program being described.
142: .LP
143: The
144: .I DESCRIPTION
145: subsection discusses in detail the subject at hand.
146: .LP
147: The
148: .I EXAMPLES
149: subsection illustrates interesting usage.
150: .LP
151: The
152: .I FILES
153: subsection gives the names of files which are
154: built into the program.
155: .LP
156: The
157: .I
158: SEE ALSO
159: .R
160: subsection gives pointers to related information.
161: .LP
162: The
163: .I DIAGNOSTICS
164: subsection discusses
165: the diagnostic indications which may be produced.
166: Messages which are intended to be self-explanatory
167: are not listed.
168: .LP
169: The
170: .I BUGS
171: subsection gives
172: known bugs and sometimes deficiencies.
173: Occasionally also the suggested fix is
174: described.
175: .br
176: .RE
177: .LP
178: The following conventions are used, particularly in
179: section 1:
180: .RS
181: .LP
182: .CW "Program font"
183: shows literals, file names, and examples.
184: .LP
185: .I Italics
186: designate parameters or arguments.
187: In descriptions italics also name programs, as a sign that the
188: programs can be found described in this manual, and as a reminder
189: that the name is probably a shorthand,
190: not a real file name.
191: .LP
192: Square brackets [ ] around an argument
193: indicate that the argument is optional.
194: .LP
195: Ellipses `.\|.\|.' indicate that the previous item
196: may be repeated.
197: .LP
198: A final convention is used by the commands themselves.
199: An argument beginning with a minus sign
200: .CW -
201: usually means a command option
202: even if it appears in a position where a file name
203: could appear.
204: Therefore, it is unwise to have files
205: whose names begin with
206: .CW - .
207: .br
208: .RE
209: .LP
210: Following this introduction are a classified table of contents,
211: a permuted index, and a glossary.
212: .SH
213: HOW TO GET STARTED
214: .LP
215: This section sketches the basic information
216: you need to get started on
217: .UX :
218: how to log in and log out,
219: how to communicate through your terminal,
220: and how to run a program.
221: See Kernighan and Pike for a more complete introduction.
222: .LP
223: .I
224: Logging in.\ \
225: .R
226: You must call
227: .UX
228: from an appropriate terminal.
229: Most any \s8ASCII\s0 terminal capable of full duplex operation and generating
230: the entire character set can be used.
231: You must also have a valid user name,
232: which may be obtained, together with necessary telephone numbers
233: or computer names,
234: from the system administrator.
235: After a data connection is established,
236: the login procedure depends on what kind of terminal
237: you are using.
238: .LP
239: .I
240: .I
241: Dial-up terminals:\ \
242: .R
243: If there is a half/full-duplex switch, set it at full-duplex.
244: When you have established a data connection,
245: the system types out a few characters, intended to be
246: .CW login: .
247: If they appear as gibberish, the computer is sending at the wrong
248: baud rate.
249: Depress the `break'
250: key;
251: this is a signal
252: that a different speed terminal
253: is in use.
254: The system will type
255: .CW login:
256: at another
257: speed.
258: Continue depressing the break key
259: until
260: .CW login:
261: appears, then respond with your user name.
262: End each line you type with a carriage return.
263: .LP
264: .I
265: Hard-wired terminals.\ \
266: .R
267: Hard-wired terminals usually begin at the right
268: speed, up to 19200 baud; otherwise the preceding instructions
269: apply.
270: .LP
271: .I
272: Datakit\(rg terminals.\ \
273: .R
274: Make sure that any on-line/off-line switch is turned to on-line.
275: If the terminal types gibberish, depress the `break' key repeatedly
276: until you see the prompt
277: .CW "Number please:"
278: or
279: .CW "Destination please:" .
280: Respond with the name of the computer you wish to connect to,
281: followed by a carriage return.
282: When the computer prompts
283: .CW login:
284: proceed as above.
285: .LP
286: For all terminals, it is important
287: that you type your name in lower case if possible.
288: If you type
289: upper-case letters, the system
290: will assume that your terminal cannot generate lower-case
291: letters and will translate all subsequent upper-case
292: letters to lower case.
293: .LP
294: Upon logging in you may be presented with a `message of
295: the day'.
296: You may also be notified of incoming mail.
297: The final evidence that you have successfully
298: logged in is that a shell program
299: will type a prompt (normally
300: .CW $ )
301: to you.
302: (The shell is described below under
303: `How to run a program.')
304: .LP
305: Terminals come with a bewildering variety of capabilities,
306: which the system may have to be aware of.
307: Get somebody who knows to help customize a
308: .CW \&.profile
309: description of your terminal to set things properly
310: upon logging in.
311: For more information, consult
312: .I sh (1)
313: about profiles,
314: .I environ (5)
315: about environments, and
316: .I tabs (1),
317: .I stty (1),
318: .I tty (4),
319: and
320: .I ttyld (4)
321: about terminal settings.
322: .LP
323: .I
324: Logging out.\ \
325: .R
326: There are two ways to log out:
327: .IP
328: Type an end-of-file indication
329: (EOT character,
330: control-\f(CWd\fP)
331: to the shell.
332: The shell will terminate and a
333: .CW login:
334: or
335: .CW "Number please:"
336: message
337: will appear again.
338: .IP
339: Simply hang up or turn your terminal off.
340: .LP
341: .I
342: How to communicate through your terminal.\ \
343: .R
344: When you type characters, a gnome deep in the system
345: gathers your characters and saves them in a secret
346: place.
347: The
348: characters will not be given to a program
349: until you type a return.
350: .LP
351: .UX
352: terminal I/O is full-duplex.
353: It has full read-ahead, which means that you can
354: type at any time,
355: even while a program is
356: typing at you.
357: If you type while the computer is printing,
358: the input may appear interleaved with the output.
359: However, whatever you type will be saved
360: up and interpreted in correct sequence.
361: .LP
362: In typed input, the character
363: .CW @
364: kills all the preceding characters in the line, so
365: typing mistakes
366: can be repaired.
367: Also, the character
368: .CW #
369: erases the last character typed.
370: (Most users prefer to use a backspace rather than
371: .CW # ;
372: .I stty (1)
373: can be used to arrange this.)
374: Successive uses of
375: .CW #
376: erase characters back to, but
377: not beyond, the beginning of the line.
378: .CW @
379: and
380: .CW #
381: can be transmitted to a program
382: by preceding them with
383: .CW \e .
384: (So, to erase
385: .CW \e ,
386: you need two
387: .CW # s).
388: .LP
389: The `delete' or `rubout' key causes an
390: .I
391: interrupt signal,
392: .R
393: as does the
394: `break' key.
395: This signal
396: generally causes whatever program
397: you are running to terminate.
398: It is typically used to stop a long printout that
399: you don't want (with varying degrees of promptness).
400: However, programs can arrange either to ignore
401: this signal altogether,
402: or to be notified, instead of being killed, when it happens.
403: The editor,
404: .I ed (1),
405: for example, catches interrupts and
406: stops what it is doing,
407: instead of terminating, so that an interrupt can
408: be used to halt an editor printout without
409: losing the file being edited.
410: .LP
411: It is also possible to suspend output temporarily by typing
412: control-\f(CWs\fP
413: and later resume output with
414: control-\f(CWq\fP.
415: .LP
416: The
417: .I quit ""
418: signal is generated
419: by typing
420: control-\f(CW\e\fP
421: or
422: control-\f(CW|\fP.
423: It not only causes a running program to terminate
424: but also generates a file with the core image
425: of the terminated process.
426: Quit is useful
427: for debugging.
428: .LP
429: .I
430: How to run a program; the shell.\ \
431: .R
432: When you have successfully logged in, a program
433: called the shell is listening to your terminal.
434: The shell reads typed-in lines, splits them up
435: into a command name and arguments, and executes the command.
436: A command is simply an executable program, which the
437: shell finds by looking in several standard places.
438: You can
439: place commands in your own directory and have the shell find them there.
440: There is nothing special about system-provided
441: commands except where they live.
442: .LP
443: The command name is always the first word on an input line;
444: it and its arguments are separated from one another by
445: spaces.
446: .LP
447: When a program terminates, the shell will ordinarily regain control and type
448: a prompt at you to indicate that it is ready for another command.
449: .LP
450: The shell (and the underlying system) has a distinctive
451: ability to combine programs by piping the output of one into the
452: input of another.
453: In general, programs have been designed to be usable in pipelines
454: as well as on their own.
455: The shell has many other capabilities, which are described in detail in
456: .I sh (1).
457: .LP
458: .I
459: Bitmap terminals.\ \
460: .R
461: To get the most out of the Tenth Edition system, you will probably
462: wish to use a Teletype 5620 or 630 terminal, run with
463: .I mux (9.1).
464: This provides
465: mouse control, graphics, and multiple layers, each of which acts like
466: a separate, simultaneously running
467: .UX
468: terminal, complete with its own shell.
469: Text in a
470: .I mux
471: layer can be edited on screen.
472: The editor
473: .I sam (9.1)
474: and the typesetter simulator
475: .I proof (9.1)
476: are particularly useful programs that run only under
477: .I mux.
478: .LP
479: .I
480: The current directory.\ \
481: .R
482: .UX
483: has a file system arranged in a hierarchy of directories.
484: When you were given a user name by a system administrator,
485: you were also given a home directory (ordinarily
486: with the same name as your user name).
487: When you log in, any file
488: name you type is by default
489: in this directory.
490: Since you are the owner of this directory, you have
491: full permission to read, write, alter, or destroy
492: its contents.
493: Permissions to have your will with other directories
494: and files will have been granted or denied to you
495: by their owners.
496: As a matter of observed fact, few users
497: protect their files from perusal by other users.
498: .LP
499: You need not do all your work in the home directory.
500: To switch to another directory use the change directory
501: command
502: .I cd,
503: described in
504: .I sh (1).
505: .LP
506: .I
507: Path names.\ \
508: .R
509: To refer to files not in the current directory, you must
510: use a path name.
511: Full path names begin with
512: .CW / ,
513: the name of the `root' of the
514: whole file system.
515: After the slash comes the name of a subdirectory, another slash
516: and a sub-subdirectory, and so on
517: until finally a
518: file name is reached.
519: For example,
520: .CW /usr/lem/filex
521: refers to the file
522: .CW filex
523: in the directory
524: .CW lem ;
525: .CW lem
526: is itself a subdirectory of
527: .CW usr ;
528: .CW usr
529: .R
530: springs directly from the root.
531: .LP
532: If your current directory has subdirectories,
533: the path names of files therein begin with
534: the name of the subdirectory with no initial
535: .CW / .
536: .LP
537: A path name may be used anywhere a file name is
538: required.
539: .LP
540: Important commands which modify the contents of files
541: are
542: .I cp (1),
543: .I mv
544: (described in
545: .I cp (1)),
546: and
547: .I rm (1),
548: which respectively copy, move (i.e. rename) and remove files.
549: To find out the status of files or directories, use
550: .I ls (1).
551: See
552: .I mkdir (1)
553: for making directories.
554: .LP
555: For a fuller discussion of the file system, see
556: Kernighan and Pike.
557: It may also be useful to glance through
558: section 2 of this manual, which discusses
559: system calls, even if you don't intend
560: to deal with the system at that level.
561: .LP
562: .I
563: Environment.\ \
564: .R
565: Many things can be changed in the environment:
566: the already-mentioned erase
567: character, properties of your terminal, directories from which
568: you wish to execute commands, news notification, etc.
569: Your
570: .CW \&.profile
571: file can make these settings automatically upon login.
572: .LP
573: .I
574: Writing a program.\ \
575: .R
576: The principal language processors are
577: .I cc (1)
578: for C,
579: .I f77 (1)
580: for Fortran, and
581: .I awk (1).
582: Processors for Basic, Pascal, Snobol, Lisp, Macsyma, ML, and others are available.
583: For compile-before-run languages
584: enter the text of a source program into a
585: file, using one of the editors,
586: .I ed (1),
587: .I sam (9.1),
588: or
589: .I vi (1).
590: By convention C programs are stored in files with names
591: ending in
592: .CW .c ,
593: Fortran programs in
594: .CW .f .
595: After the program text has been entered through
596: the editor
597: and written on a file, you can give the file
598: to the appropriate language processor as an argument.
599: The output of a compiler
600: will be left in a file named
601: .CW a.out
602: in the current directory.
603: (If the output is precious, use
604: .I mv
605: to move it to a less
606: exposed name soon.)
607: .LP
608: When you have finally gone through this entire process
609: without provoking any diagnostics, the resulting program
610: can be run by giving its name (\c
611: .CW a.out
612: if you've not arranged otherwise)
613: to the shell
614: in response to the shell prompt.
615: .LP
616: Your programs can receive arguments from the command line
617: just as system programs do,
618: see
619: .I exec (2).
620: .LP
621: .I
622: Text processing.\ \
623: .R
624: Almost all text is entered through the editors.
625: The commands most often used to display text are
626: .I cat (1),
627: .I pr (1),
628: and
629: .I troff (1).
630: .LP
631: The
632: .I cat
633: command simply dumps text
634: on the terminal, with no processing at all.
635: The
636: .I pr ""
637: command paginates the text, supplies headings,
638: and has a facility for multi-column output.
639: .LP
640: .I Troff
641: prepares documents for a
642: phototypesetter.
643: Used naked, it requires careful forethought, but for
644: ordinary documents it has been tamed; see
645: .I ms (7).
646: It was used to produce this manual.
647: Its output can drive various devices including
648: laser printers and graphic terminals; see
649: .I lp (1)
650: and
651: .I proof (9).
652: .LP
653: .I
654: Status inquiries.\ \
655: .R
656: .I Who (1)
657: prints a list of users presently logged in.
658: .I Date (1)
659: prints the current time and date.
660: .I Pwd (1)
661: tells what directory you're working in;
662: .I where ,
663: described on the same page,
664: tells what machine you're on.
665: .I Ls (1)
666: will list the files in your directory or give
667: status information about particular files.
668: .LP
669: .I
670: Surprises.\ \
671: .R
672: Certain commands provide inter-user communication.
673: Even if you do not plan to use them, it would be
674: well to learn something about them, because someone else may
675: aim them at you.
676: .LP
677: To communicate with another user currently logged in,
678: .I write (1)
679: may be used, but
680: .I mail (1)
681: is both more polite and more reliable.
682: .I Mail
683: leaves a message that will be announced
684: to another user at next login, if not sooner.
685: .I Vismon (9.1)
686: and
687: .I sh (1)
688: provide ways to monitor incoming mail continuously.
689: .LP
690: .I
691: Multiple machines.\ \
692: .R
693: Tenth Edition systems have tentacles to many other
694: machines.
695: The file systems of other
696: .UX
697: systems may be accessible through
698: directory
699: .CW /n .
700: Thus you may change current directory to one of these machines, although
701: computing on your behalf is still being done on the machine you
702: logged into.
703: You may transmit data among such machines just as within one machine by using
704: .I cp (1)
705: or I/O redirection in the shell.
706: You may also log into a remote machine to do processing there with
707: input and output passing through the
708: local machine; see
709: .I con (1).
710: .LP
711: Datakit connections exist throughout Bell Laboratories.
712: File transmission, over Datakit and over dialup lines to
713: even more remote machines, is provided by
714: .I uucp (1).
715: Mail extends all over the world.
716: See
717: .I mail (6)
718: for how to send mail to destinations on networks such
719: as the ARPA Internet, Bitnet, or ACSnet (in Australia.)
This archive runs on limited infrastructure. Preserving old code on modern bandwidth. Automated agents are requested to crawl responsibly.