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1.1     ! root        1: .SP .5i
        !             2: .TL
        !             3: INTRODUCTION
        !             4: .SP 2
        !             5: .LP
        !             6: This volume describes facilities of the version of the
        !             7: .SM UNIX
        !             8: operating system that is used
        !             9: at the system's original home, the
        !            10: computing science research center of AT&T Bell Laboratories.
        !            11: Volume 2 discusses certain aspects of the system in more detail.
        !            12: For tutorial information, consult a standard reference such as
        !            13: .I "The Unix Programming Environment
        !            14: by Kernighan and Pike.
        !            15: .LP
        !            16: Within the area it surveys, this volume attempts
        !            17: to be timely, complete and concise.
        !            18: Where the latter two objectives conflict,
        !            19: the obvious is often left unsaid in favor of brevity.
        !            20: It is intended that each program be described
        !            21: as it is, not as it should be.
        !            22: Inevitably, as snapshots of a living system, some of
        !            23: the descriptions may soon go out of date.
        !            24: When that happens, users may find the latest word in
        !            25: an on-line form of this book.
        !            26: .LP
        !            27: The volume is divided into sections;
        !            28: each section consists of a number of independent pages.
        !            29: (Some `pages' spill over beyond one sheet of paper.)
        !            30: The name of a page is in its upper corners 
        !            31: together with the section number.
        !            32: Sections 3 and 9 have further substructure as described in
        !            33: their respective introductions.
        !            34: Pages are arranged alphabetically within sections.
        !            35: Here and in much other documentation,
        !            36: the notation
        !            37: .I man (1)
        !            38: refers to the page for the
        !            39: .I man
        !            40: command in section 1.
        !            41: (This particular command prints selections from the on-line manual.)
        !            42: .LP
        !            43: There are nine printed sections and one unprinted appendix.
        !            44: .DS
        !            45: 1.     Commands
        !            46: 2.     System calls
        !            47: 3.     Subroutines
        !            48: 4.     Devices, line disciplines, and file systems
        !            49: 5.     File formats and conventions
        !            50: 6.     Language conventions
        !            51: 7.     Information sources
        !            52: 8.     Maintenance commands and procedures
        !            53: 9.     Teletype 5620-related software
        !            54: A.     Other facilities
        !            55: .DE
        !            56: Section 1 describes
        !            57: programs intended to be invoked directly by
        !            58: the user, in contradistinction to subroutines, which are
        !            59: intended to be called by the user's programs.
        !            60: Essential commands generally reside in directory
        !            61: .CW /bin
        !            62: (for
        !            63: .I bin \|ary
        !            64: programs) or
        !            65: .CW /usr/bin .
        !            66: These directories are searched automatically by command interpreters.
        !            67: .LP
        !            68: Section 2 describes
        !            69: entries into the
        !            70: .UX
        !            71: kernel
        !            72: as expressed in C, the primary implementation
        !            73: language of the system.
        !            74: .LP
        !            75: Section 3 discusses
        !            76: an assortment
        !            77: of subroutines, mostly for use with C.
        !            78: The primary libraries in which they are kept are described in
        !            79: .I intro (3).
        !            80: Fortran users should consult the
        !            81: .I port (3)
        !            82: mathematical library.
        !            83: .LP
        !            84: Section 4 discusses `files'
        !            85: that actually refer to I/O devices,
        !            86: processing modules that modify the behavior
        !            87: of some devices,
        !            88: and `file systems'
        !            89: that aren't just files on a disk.
        !            90: .LP
        !            91: Section 5 gives the structure of particular
        !            92: kinds of files, for example, the form of the output of the loader and
        !            93: assembler.
        !            94: Files internal to only one command
        !            95: are excluded,
        !            96: for example compiler intermediate files.
        !            97: .LP
        !            98: Section 6 lists 
        !            99: macro packages, fonts, mail addressing conventions, etc.
        !           100: .LP
        !           101: Section 7 is a miscellaneous collection of information sources:
        !           102: library orders, news, astronomy, geography, calendar, etc.
        !           103: .LP
        !           104: Section 8 discusses commands and procedures not intended
        !           105: for use by the ordinary user.
        !           106: Most of the commands and files described here
        !           107: are kept in directory
        !           108: .CW /etc.
        !           109: .LP
        !           110: Section 9 describes software intended for use with the Teletype
        !           111: 5620 terminal.
        !           112: In this category fall utilities that exploit the terminal and
        !           113: tools for writing code to run with or on it.
        !           114: .LP
        !           115: Appendix A contains information about obsolescent or 
        !           116: specialized programs.
        !           117: It is not printed, but is accessible on line through
        !           118: .I man (1).
        !           119: .LP
        !           120: Not all facilities are available across all computers.
        !           121: Pages for programs with limited distribution
        !           122: are marked at the top
        !           123: with the name of at least one computer 
        !           124: at the home site where
        !           125: they are known to reside.
        !           126: .LP
        !           127: All pages are based on a common format,
        !           128: not all parts of which necessarily appear.
        !           129: .RS
        !           130: .LP
        !           131: The
        !           132: .I NAME
        !           133: subsection lists the exact names of the commands and subroutines
        !           134: covered
        !           135: and
        !           136: a very short description of their purpose.
        !           137: .LP
        !           138: The
        !           139: .I SYNOPSIS
        !           140: subsection summarizes the use of the
        !           141: program being described.
        !           142: .LP
        !           143: The
        !           144: .I DESCRIPTION
        !           145: subsection discusses in detail the subject at hand.
        !           146: .LP
        !           147: The
        !           148: .I EXAMPLES
        !           149: subsection illustrates interesting usage.
        !           150: .LP
        !           151: The
        !           152: .I FILES
        !           153: subsection gives the names of files which are
        !           154: built into the program.
        !           155: .LP
        !           156: The
        !           157: .I
        !           158: SEE ALSO
        !           159: .R
        !           160: subsection gives pointers to related information.
        !           161: .LP
        !           162: The
        !           163: .I DIAGNOSTICS
        !           164: subsection discusses
        !           165: the diagnostic indications which may be produced.
        !           166: Messages which are intended to be self-explanatory
        !           167: are not listed.
        !           168: .LP
        !           169: The
        !           170: .I BUGS
        !           171: subsection gives
        !           172: known bugs and sometimes deficiencies.
        !           173: Occasionally also the suggested fix is
        !           174: described.
        !           175: .br
        !           176: .RE
        !           177: .LP
        !           178: The following conventions are used, particularly in 
        !           179: section 1:
        !           180: .RS
        !           181: .LP
        !           182: .CW "Program font"
        !           183: shows literals, file names, and examples.
        !           184: .LP
        !           185: .I Italics
        !           186: designate parameters or arguments.
        !           187: In descriptions italics also name programs, as a sign that the
        !           188: programs can be found described in this manual, and as a reminder
        !           189: that the name is probably a shorthand, 
        !           190: not a real file name.
        !           191: .LP
        !           192: Square brackets [ ] around an argument
        !           193: indicate that the argument is optional.
        !           194: .LP
        !           195: Ellipses `.\|.\|.' indicate that the previous item
        !           196: may be repeated.
        !           197: .LP
        !           198: A final convention is used by the commands themselves.
        !           199: An argument beginning with a minus sign 
        !           200: .CW -
        !           201: usually means a command option
        !           202: even if it appears in a position where a file name
        !           203: could appear.
        !           204: Therefore, it is unwise to have files
        !           205: whose names begin with 
        !           206: .CW - .
        !           207: .br
        !           208: .RE
        !           209: .LP
        !           210: Following this introduction are a classified table of contents,
        !           211: a permuted index, and a glossary.
        !           212: .SH
        !           213: HOW TO GET STARTED
        !           214: .LP
        !           215: This section sketches the basic information
        !           216: you need to get started on
        !           217: .UX :
        !           218: how to log in and log out,
        !           219: how to communicate through your terminal,
        !           220: and how to run a program.
        !           221: See Kernighan and Pike for a more complete introduction.
        !           222: .LP
        !           223: .I
        !           224: Logging in.\ \ 
        !           225: .R
        !           226: You must call
        !           227: .UX
        !           228: from an appropriate terminal.
        !           229: Most any \s8ASCII\s0 terminal capable of full duplex operation and generating
        !           230: the entire character set can be used.
        !           231: You must also have a valid user name,
        !           232: which may be obtained, together with necessary telephone numbers
        !           233: or computer names,
        !           234: from the system administrator.
        !           235: After a data connection is established,
        !           236: the login procedure depends on what kind of terminal
        !           237: you are using.
        !           238: .LP
        !           239: .I
        !           240: .I
        !           241: Dial-up terminals:\ \ 
        !           242: .R
        !           243: If there is a half/full-duplex switch, set it at full-duplex.
        !           244: When you have established a data connection,
        !           245: the system types out a few characters, intended to be
        !           246: .CW login: .
        !           247: If they appear as gibberish, the computer is sending at the wrong 
        !           248: baud rate.
        !           249: Depress the `break'
        !           250: key;
        !           251: this is a signal
        !           252: that a different speed terminal
        !           253: is in use.
        !           254: The system will type
        !           255: .CW login:
        !           256: at another
        !           257: speed.
        !           258: Continue depressing the break key
        !           259: until
        !           260: .CW login:
        !           261: appears, then respond with your user name.
        !           262: End each line you type with a carriage return.
        !           263: .LP
        !           264: .I
        !           265: Hard-wired terminals.\ \ 
        !           266: .R
        !           267: Hard-wired terminals usually begin at the right
        !           268: speed, up to 19200 baud; otherwise the preceding instructions
        !           269: apply.
        !           270: .LP
        !           271: .I
        !           272: Datakit\(rg terminals.\ \ 
        !           273: .R
        !           274: Make sure that any on-line/off-line switch is turned to on-line.
        !           275: If the terminal types gibberish, depress the `break' key repeatedly
        !           276: until you see the prompt
        !           277: .CW "Number please:"
        !           278: or
        !           279: .CW "Destination please:"  .
        !           280: Respond with the name of the computer you wish to connect to, 
        !           281: followed by a carriage return.
        !           282: When the computer prompts
        !           283: .CW login:
        !           284: proceed as above.
        !           285: .LP
        !           286: For all terminals, it is important
        !           287: that you type your name in lower case if possible.
        !           288: If you type
        !           289: upper-case letters, the system
        !           290: will assume that your terminal cannot generate lower-case
        !           291: letters and will translate all subsequent upper-case
        !           292: letters to lower case.
        !           293: .LP
        !           294: Upon logging in you may be presented with a `message of
        !           295: the day'.
        !           296: You may also be notified of incoming mail.
        !           297: The final evidence that you have successfully
        !           298: logged in is that a shell program
        !           299: will type a prompt (normally 
        !           300: .CW $  )
        !           301: to you.
        !           302: (The shell is described below under
        !           303: `How to run a program.')
        !           304: .LP
        !           305: Terminals come with a bewildering variety of capabilities,
        !           306: which the system may have to be aware of.
        !           307: Get somebody who knows to help customize a 
        !           308: .CW \&.profile
        !           309: description of your terminal to set things properly
        !           310: upon logging in.
        !           311: For more information, consult
        !           312: .I sh (1)
        !           313: about profiles,
        !           314: .I environ (5)
        !           315: about environments, and
        !           316: .I tabs (1),
        !           317: .I stty (1),
        !           318: .I tty (4),
        !           319: and
        !           320: .I ttyld (4)
        !           321: about terminal settings.
        !           322: .LP
        !           323: .I
        !           324: Logging out.\ \ 
        !           325: .R
        !           326: There are two ways to log out:
        !           327: .IP
        !           328: Type an end-of-file indication
        !           329: (EOT character, 
        !           330: control-\f(CWd\fP)
        !           331: to the shell.
        !           332: The shell will terminate and a
        !           333: .CW login:
        !           334: or
        !           335: .CW "Number please:"
        !           336: message
        !           337: will appear again.
        !           338: .IP
        !           339: Simply hang up or turn your terminal off.
        !           340: .LP
        !           341: .I
        !           342: How to communicate through your terminal.\ \ 
        !           343: .R
        !           344: When you type characters, a gnome deep in the system
        !           345: gathers your characters and saves them in a secret
        !           346: place.
        !           347: The
        !           348: characters will not be given to a program
        !           349: until you type a return.
        !           350: .LP
        !           351: .UX
        !           352: terminal I/O is full-duplex.
        !           353: It has full read-ahead, which means that you can
        !           354: type at any time,
        !           355: even while a program is
        !           356: typing at you.
        !           357: If you type while the computer is printing,
        !           358: the input may appear interleaved with the output.
        !           359: However, whatever you type will be saved
        !           360: up and interpreted in correct sequence.
        !           361: .LP
        !           362: In typed input, the character
        !           363: .CW @
        !           364: kills all the preceding characters in the line, so
        !           365: typing mistakes
        !           366: can be repaired.
        !           367: A backspace
        !           368: erases the last character typed.
        !           369: Successive backspaces
        !           370: erase characters back to, but
        !           371: not beyond, the beginning of the line.
        !           372: .CW @
        !           373: and backspace can be transmitted to a program
        !           374: by preceding them with
        !           375: .CW \e .
        !           376: (So, to erase
        !           377: .CW \e ,
        !           378: you need two backspaces.)
        !           379: .LP
        !           380: The `delete' or `rubout' key causes an
        !           381: .I
        !           382: interrupt signal,
        !           383: .R
        !           384: as does the
        !           385: `break' key.
        !           386: This signal
        !           387: generally causes whatever program
        !           388: you are running to terminate.
        !           389: It is typically used to stop a long printout that
        !           390: you don't want (with varying degrees of promptness).
        !           391: However, programs can arrange either to ignore
        !           392: this signal altogether,
        !           393: or to be notified, instead of being killed, when it happens.
        !           394: The editor,
        !           395: .I ed (1),
        !           396: for example, catches interrupts and
        !           397: stops what it is doing,
        !           398: instead of terminating, so that an interrupt can
        !           399: be used to halt an editor printout without
        !           400: losing the file being edited.
        !           401: .LP
        !           402: It is also possible to suspend output temporarily by typing
        !           403: control-\f(CWs\fP
        !           404: and later resume output with 
        !           405: control-\f(CWq\fP.
        !           406: .LP
        !           407: The
        !           408: .I quit ""
        !           409: signal is generated
        !           410: by typing 
        !           411: control-\f(CW\e\fP
        !           412: or
        !           413: control-\f(CW|\fP.
        !           414: It not only causes a running program to terminate
        !           415: but also generates a file with the core image
        !           416: of the terminated process.
        !           417: Quit is useful
        !           418: for debugging.
        !           419: .LP
        !           420: .I
        !           421: How to run a program; the shell.\ \ 
        !           422: .R
        !           423: When you have successfully logged in, a program
        !           424: called the shell is listening to your terminal.
        !           425: The shell reads typed-in lines, splits them up
        !           426: into a command name and arguments, and executes the command.
        !           427: A command is simply an executable program, which the
        !           428: shell finds by looking in several standard places.
        !           429: You can 
        !           430: place commands in your own directory and have the shell find them there.
        !           431: There is nothing special about system-provided
        !           432: commands except where they live.
        !           433: .LP
        !           434: The command name is always the first word on an input line;
        !           435: it and its arguments are separated from one another by
        !           436: spaces.
        !           437: .LP
        !           438: When a program terminates, the shell will ordinarily regain control and type 
        !           439: a prompt at you to indicate that it is ready for another command.
        !           440: .LP
        !           441: The shell (and the underlying system) has a distinctive
        !           442: ability to combine programs by piping the output of one into the
        !           443: input of another.
        !           444: In general, programs have been designed to be usable in pipelines
        !           445: as well as on their own.
        !           446: The shell has many other capabilities, which are described in detail in
        !           447: .I sh (1).
        !           448: .LP
        !           449: .I
        !           450: Bitmap terminals.\ \ 
        !           451: .R
        !           452: To get the most out of the Tenth Edition system, you will probably
        !           453: wish to use a Teletype 5620 or 630 terminal, run with
        !           454: .I mux (9.1).
        !           455: This provides
        !           456: mouse control, graphics, and multiple layers, each of which acts like
        !           457: a separate, simultaneously running
        !           458: .UX
        !           459: terminal, complete with its own shell.
        !           460: Text in a
        !           461: .I mux
        !           462: layer can be edited on screen.
        !           463: The editor
        !           464: .I sam (9.1)
        !           465: and the typesetter simulator
        !           466: .I proof (9.1)
        !           467: are particularly useful programs that run only under
        !           468: .I mux.
        !           469: .LP
        !           470: .I
        !           471: The current directory.\ \ 
        !           472: .R
        !           473: .UX
        !           474: has a file system arranged in a hierarchy of directories.
        !           475: When you were given a user name by a system administrator,
        !           476: you were also given a home directory (ordinarily
        !           477: with the same name as your user name).
        !           478: When you log in, any file
        !           479: name you type is by default
        !           480: in this directory.
        !           481: Since you are the owner of this directory, you have
        !           482: full permission to read, write, alter, or destroy
        !           483: its contents.
        !           484: Permissions to have your will with other directories
        !           485: and files will have been granted or denied to you
        !           486: by their owners.
        !           487: As a matter of observed fact, few users
        !           488: protect their files from perusal by other users.
        !           489: .LP
        !           490: You need not do all your work in the home directory.
        !           491: To switch to another directory use the change directory
        !           492: command
        !           493: .I cd,
        !           494: described in
        !           495: .I sh (1).
        !           496: .LP
        !           497: .I
        !           498: Path names.\ \ 
        !           499: .R
        !           500: To refer to files not in the current directory, you must
        !           501: use a path name.
        !           502: Full path names begin with
        !           503: .CW / ,
        !           504: the name of the `root' of the
        !           505: whole file system.
        !           506: After the slash comes the name of a subdirectory, another slash
        !           507: and a sub-subdirectory, and so on
        !           508: until finally a
        !           509: file name is reached.
        !           510: For example,
        !           511: .CW /usr/lem/filex
        !           512: refers to the file
        !           513: .CW filex
        !           514: in the directory
        !           515: .CW lem ;
        !           516: .CW lem
        !           517: is itself a subdirectory of
        !           518: .CW usr ;
        !           519: .CW usr
        !           520: .R
        !           521: springs directly from the root.
        !           522: .LP
        !           523: If your current directory has subdirectories,
        !           524: the path names of files therein begin with
        !           525: the name of the subdirectory with no initial 
        !           526: .CW / .
        !           527: .LP
        !           528: A path name may be used anywhere a file name is
        !           529: required.
        !           530: .LP
        !           531: Important commands which modify the contents of files
        !           532: are
        !           533: .I cp (1),
        !           534: .I mv 
        !           535: (described in
        !           536: .I cp (1)),
        !           537: and
        !           538: .I rm (1),
        !           539: which respectively copy, move (i.e. rename) and remove files.
        !           540: To find out the status of files or directories, use 
        !           541: .I ls (1).
        !           542: See
        !           543: .I mkdir (1)
        !           544: for making directories.
        !           545: .LP
        !           546: For a fuller discussion of the file system, see
        !           547: Kernighan and Pike.
        !           548: It may also be useful to glance through
        !           549: section 2 of this manual, which discusses
        !           550: system calls, even if you don't intend
        !           551: to deal with the system at that level.
        !           552: .LP
        !           553: .I
        !           554: Environment.\ \ 
        !           555: .R
        !           556: Many things can be changed in the environment:
        !           557: the already-mentioned erase
        !           558: character, properties of your terminal, directories from which
        !           559: you wish to execute commands, news notification, etc.
        !           560: Your
        !           561: .CW \&.profile
        !           562: file can make these settings automatically upon login.
        !           563: .LP
        !           564: .I
        !           565: Writing a program.\ \ 
        !           566: .R
        !           567: The principal language processors are
        !           568: .I cc (1)
        !           569: for C,
        !           570: .I f77 (1)
        !           571: for Fortran, and
        !           572: .I awk (1).
        !           573: Processors for Basic, Pascal, Snobol, Lisp, Macsyma, ML, and others are available.
        !           574: For compile-before-run languages
        !           575: enter the text of a source program into a
        !           576: file, using one of the editors,
        !           577: .I ed (1),
        !           578: .I sam (9.1),
        !           579: or
        !           580: .I vi (1).
        !           581: By convention C programs are stored in files with names
        !           582: ending in
        !           583: .CW .c ,
        !           584: Fortran programs in 
        !           585: .CW .f .
        !           586: After the program text has been entered through 
        !           587: the editor
        !           588: and written on a file, you can give the file
        !           589: to the appropriate language processor as an argument.
        !           590: The output of a compiler
        !           591: will be left in a file named
        !           592: .CW a.out
        !           593: in the current directory.
        !           594: (If the output is precious, use
        !           595: .I mv
        !           596: to move it to a less
        !           597: exposed name soon.)
        !           598: .LP
        !           599: When you have finally gone through this entire process
        !           600: without provoking any diagnostics, the resulting program
        !           601: can be run by giving its name (\c
        !           602: .CW a.out
        !           603: if you've not arranged otherwise)
        !           604: to the shell
        !           605: in response to the shell prompt.
        !           606: .LP
        !           607: Your programs can receive arguments from the command line
        !           608: just as system programs do,
        !           609: see
        !           610: .I exec (2).
        !           611: .LP
        !           612: .I
        !           613: Text processing.\ \ 
        !           614: .R
        !           615: Almost all text is entered through the editors.
        !           616: The commands most often used to display text are
        !           617: .I cat (1),
        !           618: .I pr (1),
        !           619: and
        !           620: .I troff (1).
        !           621: .LP
        !           622: The
        !           623: .I cat
        !           624: command simply dumps text
        !           625: on the terminal, with no processing at all.
        !           626: The
        !           627: .I pr ""
        !           628: command paginates the text, supplies headings,
        !           629: and has a facility for multi-column output.
        !           630: .LP
        !           631: .I Troff
        !           632: prepares documents for a
        !           633: phototypesetter.
        !           634: Used naked, it requires careful forethought, but for
        !           635: ordinary documents it has been tamed; see
        !           636: .I ms (7).
        !           637: It was used to produce this manual.
        !           638: Its output can drive various devices including
        !           639: laser printers and graphic terminals; see
        !           640: .I lp (1)
        !           641: and
        !           642: .I proof (9).
        !           643: .LP
        !           644: .I
        !           645: Status inquiries.\ \ 
        !           646: .R
        !           647: .I Who (1)
        !           648: prints a list of users presently logged in.
        !           649: .I Date (1)
        !           650: prints the current time and date.
        !           651: .I Pwd (1)
        !           652: tells what directory you're working in;
        !           653: .I where ,
        !           654: described on the same page,
        !           655: tells what machine you're on.
        !           656: .I Ls (1)
        !           657: will list the files in your directory or give
        !           658: status information about particular files.
        !           659: .LP
        !           660: .I
        !           661: Surprises.\ \ 
        !           662: .R
        !           663: Certain commands provide inter-user communication.
        !           664: Even if you do not plan to use them, it would be
        !           665: well to learn something about them, because someone else may
        !           666: aim them at you.
        !           667: .LP
        !           668: To communicate with another user currently logged in,
        !           669: .I write (1)
        !           670: may be used, but
        !           671: .I mail (1)
        !           672: is both more polite and more reliable.
        !           673: .I Mail
        !           674: leaves a message that will be announced
        !           675: to another user at next login, if not sooner.
        !           676: .I Vismon (9.1)
        !           677: and
        !           678: .I sh (1)
        !           679: provide ways to monitor incoming mail continuously.
        !           680: .LP
        !           681: .I
        !           682: Multiple machines.\ \ 
        !           683: .R
        !           684: Tenth Edition systems have tentacles to many other 
        !           685: machines.
        !           686: The file systems of other
        !           687: .UX
        !           688: systems may be accessible through
        !           689: directory 
        !           690: .CW /n .
        !           691: Thus you may change current directory to one of these machines, although
        !           692: computing on your behalf is still being done on the machine you
        !           693: logged into.
        !           694: You may transmit data among such machines just as within one machine by using
        !           695: .I cp (1)
        !           696: or I/O redirection in the shell.
        !           697: You may also log into a remote machine to do processing there with
        !           698: input and output passing through the
        !           699: local machine; see
        !           700: .I con (1).
        !           701: .LP
        !           702: Datakit connections exist throughout Bell Laboratories.
        !           703: File transmission, over Datakit and over dialup lines to
        !           704: even more remote machines, is provided by
        !           705: .I uucp (1).
        !           706: Mail extends all over the world.
        !           707: See
        !           708: .I mail (6)
        !           709: for how to send mail to destinations on networks such
        !           710: as the ARPA Internet, Bitnet, or ACSnet (in Australia.)

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